Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis

Resources

  

This resource section contains 

Take the Assessment Quiz  (you must take the assessment to complete the course)

Back to Table of Contents

Additional Reading

Allison GT, Singer KP, Marshall RN. The effect of body position on bioelectrical resistance in individuals with spinal cord injury. Disabil Rehabil. 1995;17(8):424-429.

Chang DW, DeSanti L, Demling RH. Anticatabolic and anabolic strategies in critical illness: a review of current treatment modalities. Shock. 1998;10(3):155-160. 

Conlisk EA, Haas JD, Martinez EJ, Flores R, Rivera JD, Martorell R. Predicting body composition from anthropometry and bioimpedance in marginally undernourished adolescents and young adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55:1051-1059. 

Deurenberg P, van der Kooij, Evers P, Hulshof T. Assessment of body composition by bioelectrical impedance in a population aged >60 years. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;51:3-6. 

Frankenfield DC, Cooney RN, Smith JS, Rowe WA. Bioelectrical impedance plethysmographic analysis of body composition in critically injured and healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(3):426-431.

Hjeltnes N, Aksnes AK, Birkeland KI, Johansen J, Lannem A, Wallberg-Henriksson H. Improved body composition after 8 wk of electrically stimulated leg cycling in tetraplegic patients. Am J Physiol. 1997;273(3 pt 2):R1072-R1079.

Howley ET, Franks BD. Health Fitness Instructor’s Handbook. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;1996. 

Kocina P. Body composition of spinal cord injured adults. Sports Med. 1997;23(1):48-60.

Lohman TG. Applicability of body composition techniques and constants for children and youths. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1998;64:25-27. 

Lukaski HC.  Methods for the assessment of human body composition: traditional and new.  Am J Clin Nutr. 1987;46:537-556.  

Miller SF, Carlson RG, Fegelman E, Quinones J, Finley RK. A comparison of total body water analyses: bioelectric impedance analysis versus the tritiated water method. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1999;20(5):363-366. 

Monk, DN, Plank LD, Franch-Arcas G, Finn PJ, Streat SJ, Hill GL. Sequential changes in the metabolic response in critically 9injured pateitns during the first 25 days after blunt trauma. Ann Surg. 1996;223(4):395-405.

Noreau L, Shephard RJ. Return to work after spinal cord injury: the potential contribution of physical fitness. Paraplegia. 1992;30(8):563-572. 

Olle MM, Pivarnik JM, Klish WJ, Morrow JR. Body composition of sedentary and physically active spinal cord injured individuals estimated from total body electrical conductivity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(7):706-710. 

Roche AF, Heymsfield SB, Lohman TG, eds. Human Body Composition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;1996. 

Roubenoff R, Kehayias JJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Heymsfield SB. Use of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in body composition studies: not yeat a “gold standard.” Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;58:589-591.

Scremin AM, Kurta L, Gentili A, Wiseman B, Perell K, Kunkel C, Scremin OU. Increasing muscle mass in spinal cord injured persons with a functional electrical stimulation exercise program. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80(12):1531-1536. 

Sloan JP, Wing P, Dian L, Meneilly GS. A pilot study of anabolic steroids in elderly patients with hip fractures. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992;40(11):1105-1111. 

Worral SF. Changes in weight and body ocmposition after orthognathic surgery and jaw fractures: a comparison of miniplates and itnermaxillary fixation. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1994;32(5):289-292. 

Zdolsek HL, Lindahl OA, Angquist KA, Sjoberg F. Non-invasive assessment of intercompartmental fluid shifts in burn victims. Burns. 1998;24(3):233-240.

 

On-Line Resources

Electrical Impedance Measures bibliography.  www.fhcrc.org/~cvdeab/chpt15.html  This takes you to an annotated bibliography on electrical impedance measures of the body.

NHANES III Mobile Examination Clinic.  www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/major/nhanes/mectour/body.html  This takes you to a site that visually tours the Mobile Examination Clinic for the NHANES III data collection.  Caution: this site requires a speedy modem connection and plenty of RAM.  The site also has links to other areas of interest in the NHANES study. 

1994 NIH Conference on BIA.  http://text.nlm.nih.gov/nih/ta/www/15.html  This site provides the 1994 NIH conference on bioelectrical impedance analysis information.

Bioimpedance Electronic Media Review.  www.biosci.uq.edu.au/BIA  A good source for continuing study in BIA and its applications.

Queensland University BIA technology review.  http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/BIA/BIA.html  This is a review of BIA technology from Queensland University.

Oslo Bioimpedance Group.  www.fys.uio.no/elg/bioimp This is the home page for the Oslo Bioimpedance Group listing their activities and conferences.

 

Body Composition Evaluation Equipment

Air Displacement: Bod Pod
Life Measurement Instruments
1980 Olivera Road, Suite C
Concord, CA, USA 94520-5454
Voice: 925-676-6002 or toll free at 1-800-4-BODPOD   (1-800-426-3763)
Fax: 925-676-6005
Email: lmi@bodpod.com  
Hand to Hand machine: Omron Healthcare, Inc.                     
300 Lakeview Parkway
Vernon Hills, IL 60061                   
1-800-634-4350  
www.omronhealthcare.com/flash/frames/wellness.htm
Foot to Foot machine:

Tanita Corporation of America, Inc.
2625 South Clearbrook Drive 
Arlington Heights, Illinois 60005, USA 
Phone (847) 640-9241
Fax (847) 640-9261

 Tetrapolar (US):

BIO ANALOGICS
7909 SW Cirrus Drive
Beaverton, OR 97008
800-327-7953
503-626-8000
fax: 503-641-4031
www.bioanalogics.com

Bodystat (USA) Incorporated 
2 Adalia Avenue, Suite 401
Tampa, FL 33606
Fax 1-813-258-9447
www.bodystat.com
RJL Systems
33955 Harper Avenue
Clinton Township, MI 48035
Phone 1-800-528-4513
Fax 1-810-790-0205
http://rjlsystems.com
Valhall Scientific
9955 Mesa Rim Road
San Diego, CA 92121
Xitron Technologies Corporation
10225 Barnes Canyon Road, Suite A102
San Diego, CA 92121  
BIA (outside US): Human IM Scan
Dietosystems
Via Teodisio, 74
20131, Milano, Italy
+02 2682 1530
fax +02 2682 1275
SEAC, Uniquest Ltd.
P.O. Box 69
St. Lucia, Queensland 4067
Phone +61-7 3365 4037
Fax +61-7 3365 4433
Lucille Bridges
Managing Director
Impedimed Pty Ltd
PO Box 327
Capalaba 4157
Brisbane Australia
Tel : Intl + 61-7-32454009
Fax : Intl - 61-7-32454332
email : bridges@bit.net.au 

Back to Table of Contents

References

[1] Hodgdon JA, Friedl KE, Beckett MB, Westphal KA, Shippee RL. Use of bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements as predictors of physical performance. Am J Clin Nutr.  1996:64(Suppl):463S-468S.

[2] Heymsfeld SB, McManus CB. Nutritional assessment by clinical and biochemical methods. In: Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 7th Edition. ME Shils and VR Yung (Eds). Lea & Febiger: Philadelphia, PA, 1988:817-860.

[3] Roubenoff R, Dallal GE, Wilson PWF. Predicting body fatness: the body mass index vs. estimation by bioelectrical impedance. Am J Public Health. 1995;85(5):726-728.

[4] Heymsfield SB, McManus CB. Tissue components of weight loss in cancer patients. A new method of study and preliminary observations. Cancer. 1985;55(1 Suppl):238-249.

[5] Kotler DP, Richmond B, Wang J, Pierson RN. Validation of a predictive equation for total body potassium content in HIV-infected individuals using bioimpedance analysis. 

[6] Heber D, Ingles S, Ashley JM, Maxwell MH, Lyons RF, Elashoff RM. Clinical detection of sarcopenic obesity by bioelectrical impedance analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64 (Suppl):472S-477S.

[7] Ott M, Lembcke B, Fischer H, Jager R, Polat H, Geier H, Rech M, Staszeswki S, Helm EB, Caspary WF. Early changes of body composition in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: tetrapolar body impedance analysis indicates significant malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993;57(1):15-19.

[8] Watkins JC, Roubenoff R, Rosenberg IH. Body Composition: The Measure and Meaning of Change with Aging. Boston, MA: Foundation for Nutritional Advancement; 1992.

[9] Risser JMH, Rabeneck L, Foote LW, Klish WJ. A comparison of fat-free mass estimates in men infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. J Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 1995;19(1):28-35.

[10] Carter JEL, Heath BH. Somatotyping—Development and Applications. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 1990.

[11] Callaway CW, Chumlea WC, Bouchard C, et al. Circumferences. In: Lohman TG, Roche AF, Martorell R, eds. Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1988:39-54.

[12] Gibson RS. Principles of Nutritional Assessment. Oxford University Press: New York, NY 1990.

[13] Niyongabo T, Melchior JC, Henzel D, Bouchard O, Larouze B. Comparison of methods for assessing nutritional status in HIV-infected adults. Nutrition. 1999;15(10):740-743.

[14] Lohman TG, Roche AF, Mortorell R (eds). Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Champaign, IL:Human Kinetics Books; 1988.

[15] Baumgartner RN, Heymsfield SB, Roche AF. Human body composition and the eipidemiology of chronic disease. Obes Res. 1995;3:73-95.

[16] Despres JP, Prudhomme D, Pouliot MC, Tremblay A, Bouchard C. Estimation of deep abdominal adipose tissue accumulation from simple anthropometric measurements in men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;54:471-477.

[17] Pouliot MC, Despres JP, Lemieux S, Moorjani S, Bouchard C, Tremblay A, Nadeau A, Lupien PJ. Waist circumference and abdominal sagittal diameter: best simple anthropometric indexes of abdominal visceral adipose tissue accumulation and related cardiovascular risk in men and women. Am J Cardiol. 1994;73:460-468.

[18] Lohman TG, Houtkooper L, Going SB. Body fat measurement goes high-tech: not all are created equal. Health and Fitness J. 1997;1:30-35.

[19] Sjostrom L. A computer-tomography based multicompartment body composition technique and anthropometric predictions of lean body mass, total and subcutaneous adipose tissue. Int J Obes. 1991;15(Suppl 2):19-30.

[20] NIH and NHLBI. Clinical Guidelines on the Identification,Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. Bethesda, MD;1998.

[21] Haarbo J, Gotfredsen A, Hassager C, Christiansen C. Validation of body composition by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Clin Physiol. 1991;11:331-341.

[22] Lohman TG. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. In: Roche AF, Heymsfield SB, Lohman TG, eds. Human Body Composition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics;1996:63-78.

[23] Bruce A, Anderson M, Arvidsson B, Isaksson B. Body composition. Prediction of normal body potassium, body water and body fat in adults on the basis of body height, body weight and age. Scand J Colin Lab Invest. 1980;40:461-473.

[24] James HM, Dabek JT, Chettle DR, Dykes PW, Fremlin JH, Hardwicke J, Thomas BJ, Vartsky D. Whole body cellular and collagen nitrogen in healthy and wasted man. Clin Sci. 1984;67:73-82.

[25] Tolli J, Bengtsson BA, Bosaeus I, Hohansson G, Alpsten M. A comparison of different methods to measure body composition in patients. Appl Radiat Isot. 1998;49(5-6):469-472.

[26] Pierson RN, Lin DHY, Phillips RA. Total-body potassium in health: effects of age, sex, height, and fat. Am J Physiol. 1974;226:206-212.

[27] Pierson RN, Wang J, Thornton JC, Van Itallie TB, Colt EW.  Body potassium by four-pi 40 K counting: an anthropometric correction. Am J Physiol.1984;246:F234-F239.

[28] Moore FD, Boyden CM. Body cell mass and limits of hydration: their relation to estimated skeletal weight. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1963;110:62-71.

[29] Howley ET, Franks BD. Health Fitness Intructor’s Handbook. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1997.

[30] Mendez J, Lukaski HC, Buskirk ER. Fat-free mass as a function of maximal oxygen consumption and 24-hour urinary creatinine, and 3-mehtylhistidine excretion. Am J Clin Nutr. 1984;39(5):710-715.

[31] Thomasett A. Bio-electrical properties of tissue impedance measurements. Lyon Med. 1962;207:107-118.

[32] Kuczmarski RJ. Bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements as part of a national survey. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):453S-458S.

[33] Hoffer EC, Meader CK, Simpson D. Whole body impedance and total body water. J Appl Physiol. 1969;27(4):531-534.

[34] McDonald JJ, Chanduv B, Velarde G, Cama R, Diaz F, Carrillo L, Torre V, Watanabe J, Villarreal J, Ramirex-Ramos A, Mantle R, Gilman RH. Bioimpedance monitoring of rehydration in cholera. Lancet. 1993;341:1049-1051.

[35] Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW, Hall CB, Siders WA. Validation of tetrapolar bioelectrical impedance method to assess human body composition. J Appl Physiol. 1986;60:1327-1332.

[36] Jackson AS, Pollack ML, Graves J, Hahar MT. Reliability and validity of bioelectrical impedance in determining body composition.  J Appl Physiol. 1988;64:529-524.

[37] Roubenoff R. Applications of bioelectrical impedance analysis for body composition to epidemiologic studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):459S-462S.

[38] Segal KR, Van Loan MD, Fitzgerald PI, Hodgdon JA, Van Itallie TB. Lean body mass estimation by bioelectrical impedance analysis: a four-site cross validation study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988;47:7-14.

[39] Sluys TEMS, van der Ende ME, Swart GR, van den Berg JWO, Wilson JHP. Body composition in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a validation study of bioelectric impedance analysis. J Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 1993;17(5):404-406.

[40] Abu Khaled M, McCutcheon MJ, Reddy S, Pearman PL, Hunder GR, Weinsier RL. Electrical impedance in assessing human body composition: the BIA method. Am J Clin Nutr.1988;47(5):789-792.

[41] Kotler DP, Rosenbaum K, Allison DB, Wang J, Pierson RN. Validation of bioimpedance analysis as a measure of change in body cell mass as estimated by whole-body counting of potassium in adults. J Parenteral Enteral Nutr. 1999;23(6):345-349.

[42] Houtkooper LB, Going SB, Lohman TG, Roche AF, Van Loan M. Bioelectrical impedance estimation of fat-free body mass in children and youth: a cross validation study. J Appl Physiol.  1992;72:366-373.

[43] Lukaski HC. Biological indexes considered in the derivation of the bioelectrical impedance analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):397S-404S.

[44] Rising R, Swinburn B, Larson K, Ravussin E. Body composition in Pima Indians: validation of bioelectrical impedance. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;53:594-598.

[45] Baumgartner RN, Heymsfield SB, Lichtman S, Wang J, Pierson RN. Body composition in elderly people: effect of criterion estimates on predictive equations. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;53:1345-1353.

[46] Simons JP, Schols AM, Westerterp KR, Ten Velde GP, Wouters EF. The use of bioelectrical impedance analysis to predict total body water in patients with cancer cachexia. Am J clin Nutr. 1995;61:741-745.

[47] Deurenberg P. Limitations ofr the bioelectrical impedance method for the assessment of body fat in severe obesity. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):449S-452S.

[48] Hayes CR, Ropka ME, Sebring NG, Anderson RE. Recent food intake did not influence precision of body composition estimates by bioelectrical impedance analysis in men with HIV infection. J Amer Diet Assoc. 1996;96(4):386-388.

[49] Chumlea WC, Roche AF, Guo S, Woynarowska B. The influences of physiologic variables and oral contraceptives on bioelectric impedance. Hum Biol. 1987;59:257-269.

[50] Chumlea WC, Guo SS, Cockram DB, Siervogel RM. Mechanical and physiologic modifiers and bioelectrical impedance spectrum determinants of body composition. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):413S-422S.

[51] Kuczmarski RJ. Bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements as part of a national survey. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):453S-458S.

[52] Kotler DP, Burastero S, Wang J. Pierson RN. Prediction of body cell mass, fat-free mass, and total body water with bioelectrical impedance analysis: effects of race, sex, and disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):489S-497S.

[53]Earthman CP, Matthie JR, Reid PM, Harper IT, Ravussin E, Howell WH. A comparison of bioimpedance methods for detection of body cell mass change in HIV infection. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88:944-956.

[54] Ott M, Fischer H, Polat H, Helm EB, Frenz M, Caspary WF, Lembcke B. Bioelectrical impedance analysis as a predictor of survival in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;9(1):20-25.

[55] Ellis KJH, Shypailo RJ, Wong WW. Measurement of body water by multifrequency bioelectrical impedance sepectroscopy in a multiethnic pediatric population. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70(5):847-853.

[56] Olde Rikkert MG, Deurenberg P, Jansen RW, van’t Hof MA, Hoefnag WH. Validation of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis monitoring fluid balance in healthy elderly subjects. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 1997;52(3):M137-M141.

[57] Montagnani M, Montomoli M, Mulinari M, Guzzo G, Scopetani N, Gennari C. Relevance of hydration state of the fat free mass in estimating fat mass by body impedance analysis. Appl Radiat Isot. 1998;49(5-6):499-500.

[58] Simons JP, Schols AM, Westerterp KR, ten Velde GP, Wouters EF. The use of bioelectrical impedance analysis to predict total body water in patients with cancer cachexia. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;61(4):741-745.

[59] Leiter LA, Lukaski HC, Kenny DJ, Barnie A, Camelon K, Ferguson RS, MacLean S, Simkins S, Zinman B, Cleary PA. The use of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) to estimate body composition in the Diabetic Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1994;18(12):829-835.

[60] Fritz T, Hollwarth I, Romaschow M, Schlag P. The predictive role of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in postoperative complications of cancer patients. Eur J Surg Oncol. 1990;16(4):326-331.

[61] Roubenoff R, Roubenoff RA, Ward LM, Holland SM, Hellmann DB. Rheumatoid cachexia: depletion of lean body mass in rheumatoid arthritis. Possible association with tumor necrosis factor. J Rheumatol. 1992:19(10):1505-1510.

[62] Reitmeier M, Hartenstein RC. Megestrol acetate and determination of body composition by bioelectrical impedance analysis in cancer cachexia (meeting abstract). Proc Annu Meet Am Soc Clinical Oncology. 1990;9:A1256.

[63] Ott M, Fischer H, Polat H, Helm EB, Frenz M, Caspary WF, Lembcke B. Bioelectrical impedance analysis as a predictor of survival in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Acquir Immune Def Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;9(1):20-25.

[64] Gudivaka R, Schoeller DA, Kushner RF, Bolt MJ. Single- and multifrequency models for bioelectrical impedance analysis of body water compartments. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(3):1087-1096.

[65] Paton NI, Elia M, Jennings G, Ward LC, Griffin GE. Bioelectrical impedance analysis in human immunodeficiency virus infected patients: comparison of single frequency with multifrequency, spectroscopy, and other novel approaches. Nutrition. 1998;14(9):658-666.

[66] Earthman CP, Matthie JR, Reid PM, Harper IT, Ravussin E, Howell WH. A comparison of bioimpedance methods for detection of body cell mass change in HIV infection. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88:944-956.

[67] Schwenk A, Schlottmann S, Kremer G, Diehl V, Salzberger B, Ward LC. Fever and sepsis during neutropenia are associated with expansion of extracellular and loss of intracellular water. Clin Nutr. 2000;19(1):35-41.

[68] Schwenk A, Ward LC, Elia M, Scott GM. Bioelectrical impedance analysis predicts outcome in patients with suspected bacteremia. Infection. 1998;26(5):277-282.

[69] Thomas BJ, Ward LC, Cornish BH. Bioimpedance spectrometry in the determination of body water compartments: accuracy and clinical significance. Appl Radiat Isot. 1998;49(5-6):447-455.

[70] Mattar JA. Application of total body bioimpedance to the critically ill patient. Brazilian Group for Bioimpedance Study. New Horiz. 1996;4(4):493-503.

[71] Van den Ham EC, Kooman JP, Christiaans MH, Nieman FH, Van Kreel BK, Heidendal GA, Van Hooff JP. Body composition in renal treansplant patients: bioimpedance analysis compared to isotope dilution, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry, and anthropometry. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10(5):1067-1079.

[72] Jones CH, Smye SW, Newstead CG, Will EJ, Davison AM. Extracellular fluid volume determined by bioelectric impedance and serum albumin in CAPD patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1998;13(2):393-397.

[73] Janssen YJ, Deurenberg P, Roelfsema F. Using dilution techniques and multifrequency bioelectrical impedance to assess both total body water and extracellular water at baseline and during recombinant human growth hormone (GH) in GH-deficient adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82(10):3349-3350.

[74] Siconolfi SF, Gretebeck RJ, Wong WW, Moore SS, Gilbert JH. Determining bone and total body mineral content from body density and bioelectrical response spectroscopy. J Appl Physiol. 1998;85(4):1578-1582.

[75] Ward LC, Elia M, Cornish BH. Potential errors in the application of mixture theory to multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis. Physiol Meas. 1998;19(1):53-60.

[76] Tatara T, Tsuzaki K. Segmental bioelectrical impedance analysis improves the prediction for extracelluar water volume changes during abdominal surgery. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(3):470-476.

[77] Zarowitz BJ. Bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements for drug pharmacokinetics. Am J Clin Nutr. 1996;64(Suppl):519S-523S.

[78] Geddes LA, Baker LE. Principles of Applied Biomedical Instrumentation. Third edition.  New York, NY:John Wiley & Sons; 1989.

[79] Chumlea WC, Guo S, Roche AF, Steinbaugh ML. Prediction of body weight for the nonambulatory elderly from anthropometry. J Amer Diet Assoc. 1988;88(5):564-568.

[80] Siri WE. Body composition from fluid spaces and density: analysis of methods. In Brozek J, Henschel A, eds. Techniques for Measuring Body Composition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1961:223-224.

[81] Baumgartner RN, Chumlea WC, Roche AF. Bioelectrical impedance for body composition. In: Randolf KB, Holloszy JO, eds. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins;1990:193-224.

[82] Lohman TG. Body composition methodology in sports medicine.  Phys Sports Med. 1982;10(12):47-58.

[83] Hamwi G. Changing dietary concepts. In: Danowski TS, ed. Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnosis and Treatment. New York, NY: American Diabetes Association; 1964.

[84] Grant A, DeHoog S. Nutritional Assessment and Support. Fourth Ed. Grant & DeHoog: Seattle, WA, 1991:13-18.

[85] Pritchard JE, Nowson CA, Wark JD. A worksite program for overweight middle-aged men achieves lesser weight loss with exercise than with dietary change. J Amer Diet Assoc. 1997;97(1):37-42.


Copyright © 2001, Hi-R-Ed.org. All courses posted on this site are the property of Hi-R-Ed.org unless otherwise stated. Courses may not be copied or transferred in electronic, printed, or other forms or modified for any purpose without explicit written consent of Hi-R-Ed.org or the copyright owner.

If you are having problems with this website, please contact the webmaster.